Fuel cells
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc
1.
Current-voltage curves (A,C) and impedance spectra (B,D) of solid oxide fuel cells with SrFe0.8Cu0.1Nb0.1O3−δ (A,B) and SrFe0.9Nb0.1O3−δ (C,D) anode.
2.
Schematic diagram of microbial electricity generation in an air-cathode microbial fuel cell (A). The air-cathode microbial fuel cell filled with untreated primary clarifier effluent (shown in inset) (B). The microbial fuel cell after completed treatment (C). Anode and air-cathode were connected with a 750 Ω resistor. A Ag/AgCl reference electrode was used for linear sweep voltammetry.
3.
Protein content of the medium in the anode chamber and on the anode of fuel cells inoculated with Shewanella oneidensisMR-1. Protein from planktonic cells was determined after each exchange of the medium. Protein from both planktonic and anode associated cells was determined after termination of the experiment. All fuel cells contained FW medium supplemented with lactate, except the fuel cell with hydrogen, which was supplemented with lactate and no hydrogen until the first medium exchange, and then bubbled with hydrogen without lactate. No third medium exchanged was performed on the fuel cell with defined medium and hydrogen.
4.
(a) Terminal voltages measured at 750 °C as a function of time for the cells with and without / interfaces operated at a constant current density of 500 mA cm−2 with wet (with ~3 v% ) as the fuel. (b) Typical current–voltage characteristics and the corresponding power densities measured at 750 °C for cells with and without / interfaces (after 4 h operation) when wet was used as the fuel and ambient air as the oxidant. (c) Typical current–voltage characteristics and the corresponding power densities measured at 850 and 750 °C for cells with / interfaces when gasified carbon was used as the fuel and ambient air as the oxidant in a fluidized carbon bed-SOFC arrangement.
5.
Colonization of diesel fuel by A. venetianus VE-C3. (a) Light microscopy in the transmission mode, showing aggregates of cells (arrows) before adhesion to the diesel fuel surface after a 6-h incubation at 28°C in mineral medium with 2 g of diesel fuel liter−1. (b) The same image as in panel a but observed by CLSM in the fluorescence mode, obtained by overlapping 20 images scanned every 0.6 μm for a total depth of 12 μm. VE-C3 was stained with ConA-FITC to show polysaccharide residues of glucose and mannose in CPS. Only a fraction of the cells seen in panel a (arrows) have a fluorescent CPS after 6 h of incubation. (c) Transmission mode, showing that the surface tension of a diesel fuel drop colonized by strain VE-C3 decreases and the bacteria at the rim and on top produce elongated and indented shapes after a 12-h incubation. (d) The same image as in panel c but in the fluorescence mode, with the ConA-FITC distribution imaged by CLSM. VE-C3 cells with CPS smear the elongated rim of the diesel fuel drop showing “polysaccharide footprints.” (f) Transmission mode, showing a diesel fuel droplet with a diameter of about 20 μm, with many smaller microdroplets embedded in a microbial aggregate. After a 28-h incubation at 28°C, VE-C3 cells are still attached to diesel fuel droplet. (g) The same image as in panel f but in fluorescence mode with the ConA-FITC distribution imaged by CLSM. The aggregate of cells and diesel fuelmicrodroplets is glued together by a thick polysaccharide matrix excreted by the bacteria.
6.
(a) Typical current–voltage characteristics and the corresponding power densities measured at 750 °C for cells with a configuration of /Ni-YSZ |YSZ| SDC/LSCF when dry was used as the fuel and ambient air as the oxidant. (b) Terminal voltages measured at 750 °C as a function of time for the cells with and without / interfaces operated at a constant current density of 500 mA cm−2 with dry as the fuel. Water was formed on the anode by electrochemical oxidation of dry .
7.
A SEM image of catalyst layers at cathode electrodes applied in PEM fuel cells for Pt-RGO/SiC (a) and a selective-area magnified image (b); A SEM image of catalyst layers at cathode electrodes for PEM fuel cells for Pt/RGO (c) and a selective-area magnified image (d); Fuel cell performance by single cell tests Polarization curves (e) and power density (f) for Pt-RGO/SiC and Pt/RGO electrodes.
8.
The 625 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Reformer System (fuel cell stack is out of view) produces methane from high-sulfur logistics fuel to power the fuel cell stack with an expected efficiency of 47–50%. The system is being land-tested by the Office of Naval Research, and will be installed at the Naval Sea System Command’s engineering facilities in Philadelphia in 2007 for extended testing.
9.
(a) SLFCs used to test the effect n = Acathode/Aanode on fuel cell performance (here for SLFC A1 n = 3.7, SLFC A2 n = 1.39, SLFC A3 n = 0.47) (b) interdigital electrode fuel cells used to test the effect of interface area and oxygen concentration on fuel cell performance. The results represent the average of 3 measurements.
10.
FE-SEM cross-sectional images of cells 1 and 2. (a) A GDC single-layered thin-film fuel cell (cell 1) and (b) a SIPO single-layered thin-film fuel cell (cell 2).
11.
Possibilities of implementing fuel cells propulsion systems in UAVs.
12.
A rainbow arches over the guided missile destroyer USS Gonzalez (DDG 66) as it pulls into the Port of Mombasa, Kenya. The U.S. Navy is one of several groups investigating the use of fuel cells in its fleet. Fuel cells offer the advantages of being less polluting and quieter than diesel engines.
13.
Power versus weight of PEM and DMFC commercial fuel cells.
14.
(a) fused silica substrate before dicing with single layer fuel cells (SLFC) patterned on both sides (b) a typical device used in this work with leads attached (c) scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images showing the high surface area Raney-alloy structure of the anode at different alloying temperatures and at the cathode.
15.
Artist’s concepts of two potential ships that may use fuel cells in the not-too-distant future: (above) a design by a Northrop Grumman Corporation–led team of the U.S. Navy’s 21st century surface combatant, and (right) Calá Corporation’s fuelcell–powered luxury cruise ship.
16.
Schematic depiction of the experimental setup used for mass spectrometry of fuel cells.
17.
Microbial fuel cell schematic for wastewater management operating with microbes as catalysts for fuel oxidation at the anode electrode and oxidant reduction at the cathode electrode. If sludge is used as the fuel and oxygen as the oxidant, then the net reaction, without nitrification, is: C18H19O9N + H+ → 8H2O + 18CO2 + NH4+ []
18.
Polarization (solid) and power density (dash) curves of the fuel cell. The blue curve fuel cell with pure H2 as the anode feed. The red curves represent the fuel cell with anode feeding gas of filtered mixed gas at 10 min and the black curves represent the curves obtained at 60 min. The orange curves represent the fuel cell performance with anode feeding gas of 1% CO in 99% H2.
19.
Electrochemical performances of cells 1 and 3. (a) A 850-nm-thick GDC electrolyte fuel cell (cell 1) and (b) a 460-nm-thick GDC/YSZ electrolyte fuel cell (cell 3) measured at 450°C.
20.
The image at left shows a set of superimposed photolithographic masks for glucose fuel cells of various sizes, arranged for fabrication on a silicon wafer 150 mm (6 inches) in diameter. The largest device depicted has an anode that measures 64 mm by 64 mm. The anodes of the other fuel cells shown are scaled-down versions of the large device, with length and width alternately reduced by factors of two. The schematic was constructed by overlaying the four process layers: yellow, platinum; orange, roughened platinum anode (aluminum deposition for annealing); blue, Nafion; green, cathode (single-walled carbon nanotubes in Nafion). The photograph at right shows the corresponding silicon wafer as fabricated. Scale Bar: 2 cm.
Benjamin I. Rapoport, et al. PLoS One. 2012;7(6):e38436.
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21.
22.
The electrochemistry and major components of liquid fuel cells with proton (a), alkaline (b) and solid oxide (c) ion-exchange membranes.
23.
The electrochemistry of a borohydride liquid fuel cell with hydroxyl (a) and cation (b) exchange membranes and an alcohol fuel cell with cation exchange membrane (c).
24.
The central role of porosity in the Ni-YSZ anode supported solid oxide fuel cells properties.
25.
UAVs histogram according to sizes and powerplants. “Electric” includes batteries, fuel cells, and solar. “Other” includes rocket propelled, Wankel, laser powered, and hydrogen combustion.
26.
Correlation between current density generated by fuel cell and CO2 production at its anode for various fuel concentrations between 0.25 and 10 M (methanol) and 0.25 and 14 M (ethanol); total flow rate was 25 sccm. The color intensity of experimental points reflects the fuel density. Blue dashed line represents complete conversion of alcohol molecule to CO2. Inset: current density of the methanol-fed FC at 150 mV as a function of fuel molarity.
27.
Residential heat from biomass in the aggregate scenarios. LC-Core (60%) (dark blue); accelerated technology development bioenergy (ATD Bioenergy (60%)) (purple); LC Acctech without fuel cells (60%) (LC Acctech (no FC) 60%) (aqua); LC Acctech with fuel cells (60%) (LC Acctech 60%) (blue); LC-Core (80%) (red); LC Acctech without fuel cells(80%) (LC Acctech (no FC) 80%) (yellow); LC Acctech with fuel cells (LC Acctech 80%)(green). Percentage value corresponds to carbon reduction targets.
28.
The cole–cole plots for the impedance measurements of the fuel cells fabricated using the Pt catalyst formed on the carbon black by in-liquid plasma at various processing times.
29.
Biomass for electricity production in the aggregate scenarios. LC-Core (60%) (dark blue); accelerated technology development bioenergy (ATD Bioenergy (60%)) (purple); LC Acctech without fuel cells (60%) (LC Acctech (no FC) 60%) (aqua); LC Acctech with fuel cells (60%) (LC Acctech 60%) (blue); LC-Core (80%) (red); LC Acctech without fuel cells(80%) (LC Acctech (no FC) 80%) (yellow); LC Acctech with fuel cells (LC Acctech 80%) (green). Percentage value corresponds to carbon reduction targets.
30.
Biomass for transport (biofuels) in the aggregate scenarios. LC-Core (60%) (dark blue); accelerated technology development bioenergy (ATD Bioenergy (60%)) (purple); LC Acctech without fuel cells (60%) (LC Acctech (no FC) 60%) (aqua); LC Acctech with fuel cells (60%) (LC Acctech 60%) (blue); LC-Core (80%) (red); LC Acctech without fuel cells(80%) (LC Acctech (no FC) 80%) (yellow); LC Acctech with fuel cells (LC Acctech 80%) (green). Percentage value corresponds to carbon reduction targets.
31.
Confocal (a, c) and SEM (b, d) pictures of the biofilm growing on anodes of fuel cells inoculated with Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. Fuel cells were fed with FW medium supplemented with lactate and (a, b) amino acids; (c, d) yeast extract. Anodes for CLSM examination were directly stained with the BacLight Live/Dead kit (). Live cells appear green and dead cells red.
32.
Quantitative analysis of the scientific literature on microbial fuel cells and bioelectrochemical systems (Source: ISI WEB OF SCIENCE, January 2017).
33.
Dependence of the probability of methanol-to-CO2 conversion on the flow rate of fuel delivered to the fuel cell anode. Methanol concentration was 2 M, cell potential 350 mV. Inset: comparison of typical mass spectra of DMFC anode exhaust acquired at low and high fuel load for the same methanol-fueled cell.
34.
2008–2012 evolution with % fuel cell UAVs trend.
35.
Simplified representation of suggested degradation mechanisms for platinum particles on a carbon support in fuel cells.
36.
Output voltages of the microbial fuel cells (MFCs) with graphene (G) and G-graphene oxide (GO) anodes.
37.
Power densities of four microbial fuel cells (MFCs) with different deposition times.
38.
CSLM of Rhodococcus sp. strain Q15 cells grown on diesel fuel at 5°C. (A) Three-dimensional projections presented as a stereo pair showing a z series through an SYTO 9-stained strain Q15 biofilm grown on diesel fuel as the sole C source. Note the basal layer of attached cells on the slide surface and the microdroplets of diesel fuel surrounded by cells of strain Q15. (B) Series of xz optical sections through the diesel fuel microdroplets shown in panel A. The upper surface was a glass coverslip overlying a well slide. The cells grown on diesel fuel were transferred to the well slide and covered with a glass coverslip, and microdroplets were observed after they rose to contact the upper glass surface. The cells were maintained at 5°C, and no fixation or immobilization of the droplets was performed.
39.
Dependence of the output current on (a) the output voltage; and (b) electric power for fuel cells fabricated with the Pt catalyst formed on carbon black using in-liquid plasma at various processing times.
40.
Fuel cell testing system.
41.
Schematic illustration of the major migrative and diffusive fluxes across (a) anion and (b) cation exchange membranes used in direct borohydride/peroxide fuel cells (DBPFCs).
42.
Experimental setup of living-plant fuel cell (LFC) system.
43.
FE-SEM cross-sectional image of a GDC/YSZ bilayered thin-film fuel cell(cell 3).
44.
Fuel cell testing system.
45.
Utilization of fuel oil TPHs by strain AP1. The TPH contents in cultures (▪) and abiotic controls (•) were determined by GC-FID. The number of cells of Mycobacterium sp. strain AP1 in nutrient-supplemented artificial seawater containing Prestigefuel oil was determined by plate counting (▵).
46.
Design for the microbial fuel cell (MFC) with iron mediated cathode and bipolar membrane.
47.
In-situ diagnostic device embedded in a PEM fuel cell.
48.
49.
Proposed device embedded in PEM fuel cell.
50.
51.
Application of electrodes fabricated by cyclic electrodeposition of PtCu-alloy to potentially implantable glucose fuel cells. All data has been recorded at 7% oxygen saturation and 3 mm glucose in phosphate buffered saline (estimated physiological concentrations) at 37 °C. A) Open circuit potentials of electrodes fabricated with different number of deposition cycles (data is recorded after 3 h @ 7% oxygen saturation, average values of 2 samples each). B,C) Load curve comparison of glucose fuel cells using electrodes fabricated by cyclic electrodeposition (average value of six fuelcells) to state of the art fuel cells (data from , average of three fuel cells). B) shows power densities and (C) shows the corresponding electrode potentials.
52.
Fuel species molar fractions yi distribution along the length of the SOFC for base case inlet compositions.
53.
Cancer’s fuel choice. Cancer cells can take up glucose, glutamine, amino acids, lysophospholipids, acetate, and extracellular protein and use these fuels to supply their pools of macromolecular precursors for cellular proliferation.
54.
55.
Polarization curves (black circles) and power density curves (orange circles) from microbial fuel cells using the 15 isolates as the anodic biocatalyst. Data are presented as means with error bars as standard error (n = 3).
56.
The equivalent circuit for the internal impedance of a fuel cell, which was used for estimating the series resistance (Rs) and parallel resistance (Rp).
57.
Potential changes by repetitive measurements of H2O2 fuel cells with the Nafion® coated [FeIII(Pc)Cl] cathode (red) and without Nafion® coating (black). Potentials required to achieve the power density of 20 μA cm−2 were recorded.
58.
The total cathode polarization resistance, the high-frequency and low-frequency polarization resistances for the SSC/LSGM hybrid at VSSC = 12.9%, derived from the impedance data, plotted versus inverse temperature.
59.
Schematic diagram of the fuel cell.
60.
Power density of the MFCs equipped with FO-SSA using different substrates as fuel. Two reactors were operated for each substrate
61.
Schematic diagram of the fuel cell rig.
62.
Electricity generation from the plant microbial fuel cell (PMFC) (A) and a GO-PMFC (B) during the period of polarization. The photograph insets in (A,B) show cross sections of the soil compartments of PMFC and GO-PMFC, respectively.
63.
Schematic of a microbial fuel cell (a), microbial electrolysis cell (b), microbial desalination cell (c) and general microbial electrosynthesis cell (d).
64.
(a) In a typical redox cycling test, the fuel gas is switched between air and H2, with N2 to purge the anode chamber. Under a constant current density of 0.7 A cm−2, the instant response of cell voltage is recorded all times. (b) Impedance spectra are measured under open-circuit condition before and after the redox cycles. In a typical redox cycle, H2 flow is stopped to feed the anode which is then purged with N2 for 0.5 hour, air is then flowed for 0.5 hour.
65.
Fe(III)-oxide reduction by G. sulfurreducens resting cell suspensions incubated with supernatants from G. fermentans fuelcells. Effects of supernatants from two 7-day-old fuel cells (▵, ▴) and two 35-day-old fuel cells (□, ▪) are shown, with the effects of 25 μM (♦) and 50 μM (⋄) AQDS shown for comparison.
66.
Polymer fiber membrane (PFM) and NRE-211 were used in DBFCs, respectively. LaNiO3 and CoO were used as cathode and anode catalyst, respectively, in all cells. The current density held at 200 mA·cm2.
67.
OCV and peak power density of GDC/YSZ thin-film fuel cell(cell 3)versus dwell time at 450°C.
68.
Cyclic voltammogram observed for the fuel cell, which was fabricated with the carbon black after the in-liquid plasma process was carried out for 20 min.
69.
Power density and current density curve for microbial fuel cells (MFCs) operated for 5 months using Pt, activated carbon (AC), and 10% carbon black (CB)-blended AC (Reprinted with permission from Ref. []. Copyright (2014) American Chemical Society).
70.
Electrochemical galvanodynamic studies in SOFC and SOEC modes for the TY and CY cells. Solid symbols correspond to the CY cell and hollow symbols to the TY cell. Black: measured at 800 °C using RT humidified hydrogen as fuel. All the rest were measured using 50% steam −50% hydrogen as fuel. Red: measured at 800 °C; Green: measured at 700 °C; Blue: measured at 600 °C. The inset corresponds to a magnification for both samples at low current densities (700 °C).
71.
Diagram of the elements of a propulsion system with a mechanical energy converter based on a fuel cell + electric motor combination [] (adapted from []).
72.
Polarization curve of the copper reducing microbial fuel cell (MFC). The potential is represented vs. current density (black) and the power is shown versus current density (grey).
73.
Polarization curves of CsPOMo/QDPSU/PTFE and PBI fuel cell operated at 150 °C with H2/O2. Atmospheric pressure, no gas humidity.
74.
Images of the benthic microbial fuel cell done by Prof. Tender group (a,b) and by Prof. Beyenal group (c,d). A basic mobile phone charged by a stack of 12 ceramic microbial fuel cells (e), and the Pee Power™ urinal tested on the University of the West of England, Bristol campus (f). (Fig. 8a, b adapted from Ref. with permission of Elsevier, Fig. 8c, d Photo Credit: Prof. Zbigniew Lewandowski and Prof. Haluk Beyenal, Fig. 8e Adapted from Ref. , published by the PCCP Owner Societies, CC BY 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/)).
75.
The relative ratios of a ATP/ADP, b NADH/NAD+, and c NADPH/NADP+ in the microbial fuel cells (pH 7.0: black bars, pH 5.5: gray bars, and pH 4.0: white bars) were calculated based on the amounts of these metabolites
76.
Comparison of current generation, ethanol consumption, and acetate production in fuel cells with sterile control plus ethanol (A), P. carbinolicus plus ethanol (B), G. sulfurreducens grown with acetate until day 16 and then fed with ethanol (EtOH) (C), and a coculture of P. carbinolicus and G. sulfurreducens fed with ethanol (D). In panels C and D, G. sulfurreducens was grown with acetate in the fuel cell until current production was stable and then media were exchanged (acetate was omitted, and ethanol or ethanol and P. carbinolicus were added).
77.
(A) Polarization curves of N-G-CNT with loadings: 2, 0.5, or 0.15 mg cm−2 plus KB (2 mg cm−2) for each cathode. The weight ratio of (N-G-CNT/KB)/Nafion = 1/1. (B) Cell polarization and power density as the function of gravimetric current for the N-G-CNT/KB (0.5/2 mg cm−2) with the weight ratio of (N-G-CNT/KB)/Nafion = 1/1. (C) Durability of the metal-free N-G-CNT in a PEM fuel cell measured at 0.5 V compared with a Fe/N/C catalyst (see the Supplementary Materials for preparation details). Catalyst loading of N-G-CNT/KB (0.5 mg cm−2) and Fe/N/C (0.5 and 2 mg cm−2). Test condition: H2/O2: 80°C, 100% relative humidity, 2-bar back pressure.
78.
Categories of scaled average biomass burning (bb) and fossil fuel (ff) emissions (1997–2010), including zero, low, medium and high. Grid cells were re-classified according to four categories of scaled emissions: zero, low, medium and high for biomass burning and fossil fuels, where the zero class corresponds to a scaled value of zero, low are values between zero and the first quantile of scaled data (after zeros were removed), medium are values between the first and third quantile and high are values between the third quantile and one. For simplification, several categories were combined. The bb low/ff low category combines areas where emissions from biomass or fossil fuel burning were either low or zero, but where at least one was greater than zero (bb low/ff zero, bb low/ff low and bb zero/ff low). The bb high/ff low category indicates high bb and either low or zero ff. The bb low/ff high category indicates either low or zero bb and high ff. The ‘all other’ category includes areas where emissions from either (but not both) fossil fuel or biomass burning were medium (bb zero/ff med, bb low/ff med, bb med/ff zero, bb med/ff low, bb med/ff high and bb high/ff med).
79.
Digital photographs of Gastrobot, aka chew-chew train (University of S. Florida) (a), EcoBot-I (b), and EcoBot-II (c), each powered by 8 microbial fuel cells and EcoBot-III, powered by 48 small scale MFCs (d). (Fig. 7a Reprinted from S. Wilkinson, Autonomous Robots. 9 (2) (2000) 99–111 with permission of Springer, Fig. 7b, c and d source Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EcoBot)).
80.
Mean annual emissions (Tg C yr−1) from 1997 to 2010 of each grid cell versus grid cell latitude for (a) biomass burning and (b) fossil fuel combustion. Because the area of the grid cells changes with latitude, emissions per grid cell were multiplied by the area (m2) that each grid cell occupies on the ground.
81.
(a) Acidic fuel cell (PEMFC) with a cathode g-CN-CNF-700 catalyst loading of 5.0 mg cm−2 operated at 80°C; (b) alkaline fuel cell (AFC) with a g-CN-CNF-700 catalyst loading of 2.0 mg cm−2 operated at 50°C. The H2/O2 in the MEAs were fully humidified and supplied at a total outlet pressure of 150 kPa. Figures in the background are cross-sectional FE-SEM images of the g-CN-CNF-based MEAs.
82.
Current-voltage and current-power (watts = amperes × volts) relationships for fuel cells containing G. sulfurreducensshown in Fig. . Open symbols represent the current produced from the oxidation of acetate in a fuel cell after the initial growth of cells in the electrode chamber. Closed symbols represent current produced from the oxidation of acetate in the fuel cell after the medium was replaced the second time.
83.
Open circuit potentials of the cathodes and anodes in the ocean sediment microbial fuel cells. Each electrode in each SMFC was run in duplicate; the OCPs of the electrodes in SMFC 1 are shown in black, and those of the electrodes in SMFC 2 are shown in gray. The cathodes reached an average steady-state OCP value of +506 mVSHE, and the anodes reached an average steady-state OCP value of –280 mVSHE. The error bars show a single standard deviation.
84.
Temperature distribution along the length of the SOFC for constant operating voltage VC = 0.6 V at a range of fuel and air channel inlet temperatures 
and 
(1,173 K – 1,123K – 1,073K).
and (1,173 K – 1,123K – 1,073K).
85.
(a) Representative impedance spectra measured at 600°C for the SSC/LSGM hybrid at VSSC = 12.9%. (b) The cathode polarization resistance (Rp) and the ohmic resistance (Ro), derived from the impedance data, plotted versus the SSC loading.
86.
FIG. 1. From: Electricity Generation in Microbial Fuel Cells Using Neutral Red as an Electronophore.
Schematic diagram of the microbial fuel cell in which NR was used as an electronophore (i.e., electron mediator). Switches 1 and 2 were off when the circuit was open, switch 1 was on and switch 2 was off when the circuit was closed, and switch 1 was off and switch 2 was on when a circuit with external variable resistance was used.
87.
FIG. 2. From: Electricity Generation in Microbial Fuel Cells Using Neutral Red as an Electronophore.
Production of current from NADH oxidation in a chemical fuel cell when 100 μM NR (A) or 300 μM thionin (B) was the electron mediator. The arrows indicate when 1 mM NADH (○ and ●) or 3.5 mM NADH (□ and ■) was added.
88.
Completed microbial fuel cells. (A) MFCs constructed using MudWatt kits (left) as well as a recycled tennis ball canister (right). MudWatt kit batteries pictures are displaying either the thermometer/clock or a red LED bulb. (B) MFC constructed using a rubber food storage container.
89.
The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) unit-cell performances of the membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) prepared with the catalysts of (a) commercial Pt/CB; (b) Pt1Pd4.1/CB and (c) Pt1Pd4.8/N-CNF with various methanol concentrations.
90.
Operating principles of a two-chamber microbial fuel cell (not to scale). The electroactive biofilm at the anode break down an organic substrate to produce electrons, protons and CO2. The electrons pass through an external load to be reduced at the cathode.
91.
A) Schematic diagram of a DHHPFC. B) The current–voltage (I–V) characterization of DHHPFCs assembled using Ni0.6Co0.4‐ANSA, Ni‐NSA, NiCu‐AF, 40 wt% Pt/C as the anode, and Pt/C as the cathode, respectively (cell temperature: 80 °C). C) The current–power density (I–P) performance of the above four fuel cells. Note: The mass loadings of Ni0.6Co0.4‐ANSA, Ni‐NSA, NiCu film, and 40 wt% Pt/C were 1.4, 1.18, 2.2, and 2 mg, respectively. All the cathodes were 40 wt% Pt/C.
92.
DMFC current as a function of total fuel mixture flow rate. Methanol concentration in the feed was 2 M, cell potential 350 mV. The dashed blue line represents the ideal line of maximal current.
93.
(a) Linear regression of mean annual global fossil fuel emissions log (Tg C yr−1) as a predictor of global biomass burning emissions log (Tg C yr−1) from 1997 to 2010; (b) linear regression of mean annual fossil fuel emissions log (Tg C yr−1) as a predictor of biomass burning emissions log (Tg C yr−1) by land cover (lcode; 1997–2010); shading indicates a Loess smoothing function. Because the area of the grid cells changes with latitude, emissions per grid cell were multiplied by the area (m2) that each grid cell occupies on the ground (See for definitions of land cover type codes.).
94.
Operating voltage VC and power density PC as functions of the average current density IC at a range of fuel and air channel inlet temperatures 
and 
(1,173 K – 1,123 K – 1,073 K).
and (1,173 K – 1,123 K – 1,073 K).
95.
Surface (A) and cross-sectional (B) micro-morphology of a fresh sample; Anode (C) and Cathode (D) surface micro-morphology after fuel cell tests.
96.
Performance comparison of the passive direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) with cathode catalytic layer made from the ink pre-heated at (a) 25 °C; (b) 50 °C and (c) 80 °C.
97.
Temperature distribution along the length of the SOFC for constant average current density IC = 7,100 A m−2 at a range of fuel and air channel inlet temperatures 
and 
(1,173 K – 1,123 K – 1,073 K).
and (1,173 K – 1,123 K – 1,073 K).
98.
Average lifetime energy output of SOFCs (with and without GDC interlayers) tested in sulfur-containing fuel streams, grouped by treatment: 1, no coating; 2, direct ceria coating; 3, ceria coating after thiol treatment; 4, ceria coating after sulfonate treatment. The numeral above each column is the number of cells tested for each type of treatment.
99.
FIG. 4. From: Electricity Generation in Microbial Fuel Cells Using Neutral Red as an Electronophore.
Current and potential obtained in a glucose (10 g/liter) fuel cell when E. coli K-12 resting cells were used as the catalyst and 100 μM NR or 300 μM thionin was used as the electron mediator in closed circuit (current) (A) and open circuit (potential) (B) configurations. Symbols: ○ and ●, NR; □ and ■, thionin. The arrows indicate when the electron mediator was added (arrow 1) and when the circuit was converted to an open circuit (arrow 2).
100.
Fuel cells with 5 mM ethanol, inoculated with P. carbinolicus (A) or a coculture of G. sulfurreducens and P. carbinolicus(B). In the coculture, the anode chamber medium was replaced several times and supplemented with 5 mM ethanol () or ethanol was added without medium replacement (). OD600, optical density at 600 nm.
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